Figure 7.29 Proposed mechanism of cell enlargement in Chara. The diagram shows the calcium pectate cycle occurring in the cell wall for two calcium pectate cross-bridges (black ovals in anti-parallel pectate molecules, left side of figure). Turgor pressure is high enough to distort the egg-box in one of the pair, weakening its bonds with calcium (left pectate in pair). New pectate from the cytoplasm (dashed red arrow) is undistorted and preferentially removes calcium from the weakened and distorted pectate (step 1, red). The load-bearing pectate relaxes after its cross-bridging calcium is removed. The wall elongates incrementally, shifting the load to the other member of the pectate pair, which distorts. The remaining steps 2 to 4 follow by depositing calcium pectate (step 2, blue) and new calcium from the medium plus new pectate from the cytoplasm (step 3, green), resulting in a cycle (step 4, black). The net result is elongation plus wall deposition. Although shown for only two cross-bridged pectate molecules, the same principles apply to larger numbers of cross-bridges. Note that in Chara the cycle occurs in the medium in which the cells are grown (0.6 mM Ca²⁺). Also note that the rate of growth depends on the rate of pectate release from cytoplasm to wall by exocytosis (red and green dashed arrows). Each step in the diagram was demonstrated experimentally in Chara. (JS Boyer, Front Plant Sci 7:866, 2016)